Memory Management
Overview
Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all Python
objects and data structures. The management of this private heap is ensured
internally by the Python memory manager. The Python memory manager has
different components which deal with various dynamic storage management aspects,
like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or caching.
At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough room in
the private heap for storing all Python-related data by interacting with the
memory manager of the operating system. On top of the raw memory allocator,
several object-specific allocators operate on the same heap and implement
distinct memory management policies adapted to the peculiarities of every object
type. For example, integer objects are managed differently within the heap than
strings, tuples or dictionaries because integers imply different storage
requirements and speed/space tradeoffs. The Python memory manager thus delegates
some of the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
operate within the bounds of the private heap.
It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control over it,
even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory blocks inside that
heap. The allocation of heap space for Python objects and other internal
buffers is performed on demand by the Python memory manager through the Python/C
API functions listed in this document.
To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to operate on
Python objects with the functions exported by the C library: malloc(),
calloc(), realloc() and free(). This will result in mixed
calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with fatal
consequences, because they implement different algorithms and operate on
different heaps. However, one may safely allocate and release memory blocks
with the C library allocator for individual purposes, as shown in the following
example:
PyObject *res;
char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */
if (buf == NULL)
return PyErr_NoMemory();
...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
return res;
In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the C
library allocator. The Python memory manager is involved only in the allocation
of the string object returned as a result.
In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from the
Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the Python
memory manager. For example, this is required when the interpreter is extended
with new object types written in C. Another reason for using the Python heap is
the desire to inform the Python memory manager about the memory needs of the
extension module. Even when the requested memory is used exclusively for
internal, highly-specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python
memory manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain circumstances, the
Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions, like garbage
collection, memory compaction or other preventive procedures. Note that by using
the C library allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory
for the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager.
See also
The PYTHONMALLOC environment variable can be used to configure
the memory allocators used by Python.
The PYTHONMALLOCSTATS environment variable can be used to print
statistics of the pymalloc memory allocator every time a
new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.
Raw Memory Interface
The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator. These
functions are thread-safe, the GIL does not
need to be held.
The default raw memory block allocator uses the following functions:
malloc(), calloc(), realloc() and free(); call
malloc(1) (or calloc(1, 1)) when requesting zero bytes.
-
void*
PyMem_RawMalloc(size_t n)
Allocates n bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails.
Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as
if PyMem_RawMalloc(1) had been called instead. The memory will not have
been initialized in any way.
-
void*
PyMem_RawCalloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
Allocates nelem elements each whose size in bytes is elsize and returns
a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the
request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyMem_RawCalloc(1, 1) had been
called instead.
-
void*
PyMem_RawRealloc(void *p, size_t n)
Resizes the memory block pointed to by p to n bytes. The contents will
be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.
If p is NULL, the call is equivalent to PyMem_RawMalloc(n); else if
n is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
returned pointer is non-NULL.
Unless p is NULL, it must have been returned by a previous call to
PyMem_RawMalloc(), PyMem_RawRealloc() or
PyMem_RawCalloc().
If the request fails, PyMem_RawRealloc() returns NULL and p
remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.
-
void
PyMem_RawFree(void *p)
Frees the memory block pointed to by p, which must have been returned by a
previous call to PyMem_RawMalloc(), PyMem_RawRealloc() or
PyMem_RawCalloc(). Otherwise, or if PyMem_RawFree(p) has been
called before, undefined behavior occurs.
If p is NULL, no operation is performed.
Memory Interface
The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying
behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing
memory from the Python heap.
By default, these functions use pymalloc memory allocator.
Warning
The GIL must be held when using these
functions.
Changed in version 3.6: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of system malloc().
-
void*
PyMem_Malloc(size_t n)
Allocates n bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails.
Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as
if PyMem_Malloc(1) had been called instead. The memory will not have
been initialized in any way.
-
void*
PyMem_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
Allocates nelem elements each whose size in bytes is elsize and returns
a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the
request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyMem_Calloc(1, 1) had been called
instead.
-
void*
PyMem_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)
Resizes the memory block pointed to by p to n bytes. The contents will be
unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.
If p is NULL, the call is equivalent to PyMem_Malloc(n); else if n
is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
returned pointer is non-NULL.
Unless p is NULL, it must have been returned by a previous call to
PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_Realloc() or PyMem_Calloc().
If the request fails, PyMem_Realloc() returns NULL and p remains
a valid pointer to the previous memory area.
-
void
PyMem_Free(void *p)
Frees the memory block pointed to by p, which must have been returned by a
previous call to PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_Realloc() or
PyMem_Calloc(). Otherwise, or if PyMem_Free(p) has been called
before, undefined behavior occurs.
If p is NULL, no operation is performed.
The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience. Note that
TYPE refers to any C type.
-
TYPE*
PyMem_New(TYPE, size_t n)
Same as PyMem_Malloc(), but allocates (n * sizeof(TYPE)) bytes of
memory. Returns a pointer cast to TYPE*. The memory will not have
been initialized in any way.
-
TYPE*
PyMem_Resize(void *p, TYPE, size_t n)
Same as PyMem_Realloc(), but the memory block is resized to (n *
sizeof(TYPE)) bytes. Returns a pointer cast to TYPE*. On return,
p will be a pointer to the new memory area, or NULL in the event of
failure.
This is a C preprocessor macro; p is always reassigned. Save the original
value of p to avoid losing memory when handling errors.
-
void
PyMem_Del(void *p)
Same as PyMem_Free().
In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the Python memory
allocator directly, without involving the C API functions listed above. However,
note that their use does not preserve binary compatibility across Python
versions and is therefore deprecated in extension modules.
PyMem_MALLOC(size)
PyMem_NEW(type, size)
PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)
PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)
PyMem_FREE(ptr)
PyMem_DEL(ptr)
Object allocators
The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying
behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing
memory from the Python heap.
By default, these functions use pymalloc memory allocator.
Warning
The GIL must be held when using these
functions.
-
void*
PyObject_Malloc(size_t n)
Allocates n bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails.
Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as
if PyObject_Malloc(1) had been called instead. The memory will not have
been initialized in any way.
-
void*
PyObject_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
Allocates nelem elements each whose size in bytes is elsize and returns
a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the
request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct
non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyObject_Calloc(1, 1) had been called
instead.
-
void*
PyObject_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)
Resizes the memory block pointed to by p to n bytes. The contents will be
unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.
If p is NULL, the call is equivalent to PyObject_Malloc(n); else if n
is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the
returned pointer is non-NULL.
Unless p is NULL, it must have been returned by a previous call to
PyObject_Malloc(), PyObject_Realloc() or PyObject_Calloc().
If the request fails, PyObject_Realloc() returns NULL and p remains
a valid pointer to the previous memory area.
-
void
PyObject_Free(void *p)
Frees the memory block pointed to by p, which must have been returned by a
previous call to PyObject_Malloc(), PyObject_Realloc() or
PyObject_Calloc(). Otherwise, or if PyObject_Free(p) has been called
before, undefined behavior occurs.
If p is NULL, no operation is performed.
Customize Memory Allocators
-
PyMemAllocatorEx
Structure used to describe a memory block allocator. The structure has
four fields:
| Field |
Meaning |
void *ctx |
user context passed as first argument |
void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size) |
allocate a memory block |
void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize) |
allocate a memory block initialized
with zeros |
void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size) |
allocate or resize a memory block |
void free(void *ctx, void *ptr) |
free a memory block |
Changed in version 3.5: The PyMemAllocator structure was renamed to
PyMemAllocatorEx and a new calloc field was added.
-
PyMemAllocatorDomain
Enum used to identify an allocator domain. Domains:
-
PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW
Functions:
-
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM
Functions:
-
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ
Functions:
-
void
PyMem_GetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)
Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.
-
void
PyMem_SetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)
Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.
The new allocator must return a distinct non-NULL pointer when requesting
zero bytes.
For the PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW domain, the allocator must be
thread-safe: the GIL is not held when the
allocator is called.
If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous allocator),
the PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function must be called to reinstall the
debug hooks on top on the new allocator.
-
void
PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(void)
Setup hooks to detect bugs in the Python memory allocator functions.
Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte 0xCB, freed memory is
filled with the byte 0xDB.
Runtime checks:
On error, the debug hooks use the tracemalloc module to get the
traceback where a memory block was allocated. The traceback is only
displayed if tracemalloc is tracing Python memory allocations and the
memory block was traced.
These hooks are installed by default if Python is compiled in debug
mode. The PYTHONMALLOC environment variable can be used to install
debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode.
Changed in version 3.6: This function now also works on Python compiled in release mode.
On error, the debug hooks now use tracemalloc to get the traceback
where a memory block was allocated. The debug hooks now also check
if the GIL is held when functions of PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ and
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM domains are called.
The pymalloc allocator
Python has a pymalloc allocator optimized for small objects (smaller or equal
to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime. It uses memory mappings called “arenas”
with a fixed size of 256 KB. It falls back to PyMem_RawMalloc() and
PyMem_RawRealloc() for allocations larger than 512 bytes.
pymalloc is the default allocator of the PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (ex:
PyMem_Malloc()) and PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (ex:
PyObject_Malloc()) domains.
The arena allocator uses the following functions:
VirtualAlloc() and VirtualFree() on Windows,
mmap() and munmap() if available,
malloc() and free() otherwise.
Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
-
PyObjectArenaAllocator
Structure used to describe an arena allocator. The structure has
three fields:
| Field |
Meaning |
void *ctx |
user context passed as first argument |
void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size) |
allocate an arena of size bytes |
void free(void *ctx, size_t size, void *ptr) |
free an arena |
-
PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)
Get the arena allocator.
-
PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)
Set the arena allocator.
Examples
Here is the example from section Overview, rewritten so that the
I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function set:
PyObject *res;
char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */
if (buf == NULL)
return PyErr_NoMemory();
/* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
return res;
The same code using the type-oriented function set:
PyObject *res;
char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */
if (buf == NULL)
return PyErr_NoMemory();
/* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
return res;
Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated via
functions belonging to the same set. Indeed, it is required to use the same
memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of mixing different
allocators is reduced to a minimum. The following code sequence contains two
errors, one of which is labeled as fatal because it mixes two different
allocators operating on different heaps.
char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
...
PyMem_Del(buf3); /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
free(buf2); /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
free(buf1); /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del() */
In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from the Python
heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with PyObject_New(),
PyObject_NewVar() and PyObject_Del().
These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing new
object types in C.